Who among the following sought to distinguish "Civil Society" from the "State" based on the concept of "Universal egoism" and "Universal altruism"?

Question

Accepted Answer

The correct option is 1:

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The correct answer is G. W. F. Hegel. Hegel, in his seminal work *Elements of the Philosophy of Right* (1821), presented a famous tripartite structure of ethical life (*Sittlichkeit*): the Family, Civil Society, and the State. He explicitly distinguished Civil Society (*bürgerliche Gesellschaft*) from the State by characterizing them through opposing motivational principles. According to Hegel, Civil Society is the sphere where individuals pursue their private, particular interests, and engage in economic competition. This realm is driven by **"Universal egoism,"** where every individual treats others essentially as a means to achieve their own self-interested ends. It is a system of atomistic self-interest, competition, and need satisfaction. In contrast, the State, which emerges from and transcends Civil Society, is defined by the realization of objective freedom, rationality, and true ethical unity. It is the sphere where individuals willingly subordinate their particular interests to the general will, realizing their ethical purpose. Therefore, the State embodies **"Universal altruism"** (or universal interest/rationality), representing a higher ethical whole where citizens' private interests are reconciled with the collective good, making Hegel the thinker who fundamentally separated these two spheres using these specific contrasting motivational principles.

The incorrect option is 2:

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Karl Marx, while heavily influenced by Hegel, radically critiqued Hegel's distinction between Civil Society and the State. Marx agreed that Civil Society was characterized by egoism, particularly the selfishness inherent in the capitalist economic system, which he identified with the base or economic foundation. However, Marx vehemently disagreed with the Hegelian idea of the State as the realization of "Universal altruism" or ethical life. For Marx, the modern State was not a realm of universal rationality but was merely the political *superstructure* that served the interests of the ruling economic class (the bourgeoisie). Instead of universal altruism, Marx saw the State as an instrument of class oppression and egoism, destined to wither away only after a communist revolution eliminated class divisions and established a truly communal society.

The incorrect option is 3:

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Herbert Marcuse was a prominent figure in the Frankfurt School and Neo-Marxist critical theory, focusing largely on advanced industrial society and its capacity to suppress critical thought, leading to the creation of the "one-dimensional man." Marcuse’s theoretical framework addresses alienation, technological rationality, and the repressive nature of modern society. While his work certainly deals with freedom and social institutions, his primary distinction between social spheres does not revolve around the Hegelian concepts of "Universal egoism" in Civil Society versus "Universal altruism" in the State. His focus was less on the abstract ethical relationship between the two and more on how advanced capitalism utilizes technology and consumerism to integrate and pacify the proletariat, thereby preventing radical change.

The incorrect option is 4:

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Antonio Gramsci, another important Marxist thinker, significantly developed the concept of Civil Society, particularly through his theory of hegemony, which he formulated while imprisoned. Gramsci defined Civil Society as the sphere of private institutions (like churches, schools, and media) through which the ruling class secures consent and ideological control, or hegemony, over the populace. He contrasted this sphere of "consent" (Civil Society) with the sphere of "coercion" (the State, or Political Society). While Gramsci certainly distinguishes between the State and Civil Society, and discusses the role of ideology and class interests (related to egoism), he does not use the Hegelian ethical concepts of "Universal egoism" versus "Universal altruism" to frame this distinction. His analysis is structural and strategic, focused on power relations and ideological control, rather than philosophical ethics.